Assessment of Bacterial Contamination and Health Risks Associated With Prolonged Use of Face Masks in Industry Settings
Keywords:
bacterial contamination, face masks, microbial air quality, occupational safety and healthAbstract
Face masks are a critical component of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for occupational safety and health management. Nevertheless, prolonged usage of face masks may expose employees to biological contaminants, such as bacteria, which accumulate on the inner surface of the mask and pose potential health risks. This study involved 216 participants employed by a statutory institution in Malaysia. The participants were assigned to wear three types of face masks: cotton, surgical, and Korean filters for durations of four and eight hr during their respective work shifts, which varied across roles such as office workers, trainers, and cleaners. Bacterial isolates from the masks were analyzed using the MALDI-TOF method for species identification. Twelve bacterial species were successfully identified, including Staphylococcus hominis, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus ureilyticus, Bacillus velezensis, Dermacoccus nishinomiyaensis, Bacillus licheniformis, Acinetobacter variabilis, Micrococcus luteus, Bacillus pumilus, Bacillus cereus, Sporosarcina luteola, and Staphylococcus aureus. Most of these species are part of the normal human microbiota but have the potential to act as opportunistic pathogens. Additionally, other bacterial species, particularly spore-forming ones, may have originated from the work environment. To mitigate microbial risks, individuals performing strenuous physical tasks or those with compromised immunity are advised to avoid reusing face masks and to replace them every four hr.
Downloads
References
Amador-Espejo, G.G., Hernández-Herrero, M.M., Juan, B. & Trujillo, A.J. 2014. Inactivation of Bacillus spores inoculated in milk by ultra high pressure homogenization. Food Microbiology, 44: 204-210.
Bitolitoli, E., Mutai, M., Njeru, E., Oyore, J., Neondo, J., Awuor, K., Muthee, D., Barasa, S., Letema, S. & Oduor, R. 2025. Bacteria contamination and antibiotic resistance profile on worn reusable facemasks in Githurai Market, Kenya. International Journal of Food Sciences and Biotechnology, 10(2): 33-48.
Bottone, E.J. 2010. Bacillus cereus, a volatile human pathogen. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 23(2): 382-398.
Brown, M.M. & Horswill, A.R. 2020. Staphylococcus epidermidis - Skin friend or foe? PLoS Pathogens, 16(11): 1-6.
Byrd, A.L., Belkaid, Y. & Segre, J.A. 2018. The human skin microbiome. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 16(3): 143-155.
Cho, E.M., Hong, H.J., Park, S.H., Yoon, D.K., Goung, S.J.N. & Lee, C.M. 2019. Distribution and influencing factors of airborne bacteria in public facilities used by pollution-sensitive population: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(9): 1483-1495.
Cho, W.I. & Chung, M.S. 2020. Bacillus spores: a review of their properties and inactivation processing technologies. Food Science and Biotechnology, 29(11): 1447-1461.
Cowling, B.J., Zhou, Y., Ip, D.K.M., Leung, G.M. & Aiello, A.E. 2010. Face masks to prevent transmission of influenza virus: A systematic review. Epidemiology and Infection, 138(4): 449-456.
Delanghe, L., Cauwenberghs, E., Spacova, I., De Boeck, I., Van Beeck, W., Pepermans, K. & Lebeer, S. 2021. Cotton and surgical face masks in community settings: Bacterial contamination and face mask hygiene. Frontiers in Medicine, 8: 1-12.
Demiselle, J., Meyer, P., Lavigne, T., Kaurin, J., Merdji, H., Schenck, M. & Clere-Jehl, R. 2023. Staphylococcus epidermidis bloodstream infections are a cause of septic shock in intensive care unit patients. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 135: 45-48.
Gyapong, F., Debrah, E., Oforiwaa, M., Isawumi, A. & Mosi, L. 2022. Challenges and adverse effects of wearing face masks in the COVID-19 era. Challenges, 13(2): 67-73.
Haydushka, I.A., Markova, N., Kirina, V. & Atanassova, M. 2012. Recurrent sepsis due to Bacillus licheniformis. Journal of Global Infectious Diseases, 4(1): 82-83.
Jain, A., Agarwal, A., Verma, R.K., Awasthi, S. & Singh, K.P. 2011. Intravenous device associated blood stream Staphylococcal infection in pediatric patients. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 134(2): 193-199.
Jha, S.K. 2020. Isolation and characterization of bacteria with biochemical importance from soil samples of Rachi City, India. Asian Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology and Environmental Sciences, 22(4): 648-653.
Khorvash, F., Abdi, F., Kashani, H.H., et al. 2012. Staphylococcus aureus in acne pathogenesis: a case-control study. North American Journal of Medical Sciences, 4(11): 573-576.
Kranjec, C., Angeles, D.M., Mårli, M.T., Fernández, L., García, P., Kjos, M. & Diep, D.B. 2021. Staphylococcal biofilms: Challenges and novel therapeutic perspectives. Antibiotics, 10(2): 131-159.
Kwon, H., Park, S.Y., Kim, M.S., Kim, S.G., Park, S.C. & Kim, J.H. 2022. Characterization of a lytic bacteriophage vB_SurP-PSU3 infecting Staphylococcus ureilyticus and its efficacy against biofilm. Frontiers in Microbiology, 13: 1-14.
Lalani, T., Kanafani, Z.A., Chu, V.H., Moore, L., Corey, G.R., Pappas, P., Woods, C.W., Cabell, C.H., Hoen, B., Selton-Suty, C., Doco-Lecompte, T., Chirouze, C., Raoult, D., Miro, J.M., Mestres, C.A., Olaison, L., Eykyn, S., Abrutyn, E. & Fowler, V.G. 2006. Prosthetic valve endocarditis due to coagulase-negative Staphylococci: findings from the International Collaboration on Endocarditis Merged Database. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases, 25(6): 365-368.
Landemaine, L., Da Costa, G., Fissier, E., Francis, C., Morand, S., Verbeke, J. & Richard, M.L. 2023. Staphylococcus epidermidis isolates from atopic or healthy skin have opposite effect on skin cells: potential implication of the AHR pathway modulation. Frontiers in Immunology, 14: 1-19.
Leung, N.H.L., Chu, D.K.W., Shiu, E.Y.C., Chan, K.H., McDevitt, J.J., Hau, B.J.P. & Cowling, B.J. 2020. Respiratory virus shedding in exhaled breath and efficacy of face masks. Nature Medicine, 26(5): 676-680.
Liang, M., Gao, L., Cheng, C., Zhou, Q., Uy, J.P., Heiner, K. & Sun, C. 2020. Efficacy of face mask in preventing respiratory virus transmission: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease, 36: 1477-1486.
Loeb, M., Dafoe, N., Mahony, J., John, M., Sarabia, A., Glavin, V. & Walter, S.D. 2009. Surgical mask vs N95 respirator for preventing influenza among health care workers: A randomized trial. JAMA, 302(17): 1865-1871.
McDowell, R.H., Sands, E.M. & Friedman, H. 2023. Bacillus cereus [WWW Document]. National Institutes of Health. URL https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459121/ (accessed 4.18.23).
McNamara, J.F., Righi, E., Wright, H., Hartel, G.F., Harris, P.N.A. & Paterson, D.L. 2018. Long-term morbidity and mortality following bloodstream infection: A systematic literature review. Journal of Infection, 77(1): 1-8.
OSHA. 1994. Guidelines of Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 (Act 514). Ministry of Human Resources, Malaysia.
Otto, M. 2009. Staphylococcus epidermidis - The "accidental" pathogen. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 7(8): 555-567.
Park, A.M., Khadka, S., Sato, F., Omura, S., Fujita, M., Hashiwaki, K. & Tsunoda, I. 2022. Bacterial and fungal isolation from face masks under the COVID-19 pandemic. Scientific Reports, 11361.
Purushothaman, P.K., Priyangha, E. & Vaidhyswaran, R. 2021. Effects of prolonged use of facemask on healthcare workers in tertiary care hospital during COVID-19 pandemic. Indian Journal of Otolaryngology and Head & Neck Surgery, 73(1): 59-65.
Qiu, Y., Zhou, Y., Chang, Y., Liang, X., Zhang, H., Lin, X. & Luo, Z. 2022. The effects of ventilation, humidity, and temperature on bacterial growth and bacterial genera distribution. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(22): 1-13.
Rabbee, M.F., Hwang, B.S. & Baek, K.H. 2023. Bacillus velezensis: A beneficial biocontrol agent or facultative phytopathogen for sustainable agriculture. Agronomy, 13(3): 840-854.
Reyes-Cortes, J.L., Azaola-Espinosa, A., Lozano-Aguirre, L. & Ponce-Alquicira, E. 2021. Physiological and genomic analysis of Bacillus pumilus isolated from the gastrointestinal tract of overweight individuals. Microorganisms, 9(5): 1076-1091.
Rogers, P.A.W., D'Hooghe, T.M., Fazleabas, A., Gargett, C.E., Giudice, L.C., Montgomery, G.W. & Zondervan, K.T. 2009. Priorities for endometriosis research: Recommendations from an international consensus workshop. Reproductive Sciences, 16(4): 335-346.
Severn, M.M. & Horswill, A.R. 2023. Staphylococcus epidermidis and its dual lifestyle in skin health and infection. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 21(2): 97-111.
Singh, S., Dhawan, B., Kapil, A., Kabra, S.K., Suri, A., Sreenivas, V. et al. 2016. Coagulase-negative Staphylococci causing blood stream infection at an Indian tertiary care hospital: Prevalence, antimicrobial resistance and molecular characterisation. Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology, 34(4): 500-505.
Stevens, E.J., Bates, K.A. & King, K.C. 2021. Host microbiota can facilitate pathogen infection. PLoS Pathogens, 17(5): 1-20.
Sulemana, M. & Ngah, I. 2012. Participatory planning: Ending the controversies. European Journal of Social Sciences, 28(1): 24-34.
Teo, W.L. 2021. The "Maskne" microbiome - pathophysiology and therapeutics. International Journal of Dermatology, 60(7): 799-809.
Tuon, F.F., Suss, P.H., Telles, J.P., Dantas, L.R., Borges, N.H. & Ribeiro, V.S.T. 2023. Antimicrobial treatment of Staphylococcus aureus biofilms. Antibiotics, 12(1): 87.
Ueki, H., Furusawa, Y., Iwatsuki-Horimoto, K., Imai, M., Kabata, H., Nishimura, H. & Kawaoka, Y. 2020. Effectiveness of face masks in preventing airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2. MSphere, 5(5): 637-657.
Vezzulli, L., Baker-Austin, C., Kirschner, A., Pruzzo, C. & Martinez-Urtaza, J. 2020. Global emergence of environmental non-O1/O139 Vibrio cholerae infections linked with climate change: A neglected research field? Environmental Microbiology, 22(10): 4342-4355.
Virginia Department of Health. 2018. Acinetobacter infection [WWW Document]. URL https://www.vdh.virginia.gov/epidemiology/epidemiology-fact-sheets/acinetobacter-infection/?pdf=5620 (accessed 4.18.24).
Vuong, C. & Otto, M. 2002. Staphylococcus epidermidis infections. Microbes and Infection, 4(4): 481-489.
Wang, A.B., Zhang, X., Gao, L.J., Zhang, T., Xu, H.J. & Bi, Y.J. 2023. A review of filtration performance of protective masks. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(3): 2346.
Xiong, Y., Meng, Q.S., Gao, J., Tang, X.F. & Zhang, H.F. 2017. Effects of relative humidity on animal health and welfare. Journal of Integrative Agriculture, 16(8): 1653-1658.
Yousefimashouf, M., Yousefimashouf, R., Alikhani, M.S., Hashemi, H., Karami, P., Rahimi, Z. & Hosseini, S.M. 2023. Evaluation of the bacterial contamination of face masks worn by personnel in a center of COVID-19 hospitalized patients: A cross-sectional study. New Microbes and New Infections, 52.
Zaied, A.N.H., Hussein, G.W. & Mohamed, M. 2012. The role of knowledge management in enhancing organizational performance. International Journal of Information Engineering and Electronic Business, 4(5): 27-35.
Ziebuhr, W., Hennig, S., Eckart, M., Kränzler, H., Batzilla, C. & Kozitskaya, S. 2006. Nosocomial infections by Staphylococcus epidermidis: How a commensal bacterium turns into a pathogen. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, 28(1): 14-20.
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Any reproduction of figures, tables and illustrations must obtain written permission from the Chief Editor (wicki@ukm.edu.my). No part of the journal may be reproduced without the editor’s permission
